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Chinese Literature

Dating back to the sixth century BC, the earliest Chinese texts were
primarily philosophic, such as the Confucian Analects and Daoist Daode
Jing. History as a literary genre was not established until the Han period
(206 BC–AD 220) with Sima Qian’s Historical Records: thereafter each dynasty
wrote a history of the preceding one. As for the novel, a fully fledged
Chinese example did not appear until the Ming period (1368–1644) and was
developed during the Qing dynasty until it was eventually stifled by
Communism. Since the 1980s Chinese authors have been allowed greater freedom
of expression, although, in 2000, news of exiled writer Gao Xingjian’s Nobel
Prize for Literature was suppressed.

Classics

Post-Qin dynasty, once Confucianism had become the state orthodoxy, five
early works were canonized as the Five Classics: the Book of Changes, Book of
Documents, Book of Songs, Spring and Autumn Annals and Book of Ritual.  These
books were established as the basis for Chinese education.

Tang Poets

With early beginnings in the Book of Songs and Elegies of Chu, Chinese poetry
reached its height more than twelve hundred years later in the Tang period
(618–907). The two greatest Tang poets are considered to be Du Fu and Li
Bai. Others include the Buddhist Wang Wei [also a painter, same age as Li
Bai], and the slightly later Bai Juyi (772–846).

Du Fu (AD c.712–770) wrote of suffering in war, as well as of family
life. His keynote is compassion, considered a Confucian virtue. His poems
display enormous erudition.

Li Bai (AD c.701–761) was a more ebullient figure. A prolific poet, his
favorite subjects were moon gazing and carousing.  The theme of freedom from
constraint is a Daoist one.

Epic Novels

In the Ming era, the novel developed from folk tales and myths into classics
such as Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and The Water
Margin – a tale of the heroic fight against corruption. Later, the Qing
novels used a more elevated language and subtle characterization, culminating
in the romantic novel, Dream of the Red Chamber. These novels contain many
characters that reoccur in other cultural contexts from Beijing Opera to
popular television serials and films.

Journey to the West is a comic fantasy based on the pilgrimage to India of
the Buddhist monk Xuanzang. The late Ming novel centers on Monkey, one of the
monk’s companions who represents carefree genius, bravery, and loyalty.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms: based on historical figures from the Three
Kingdoms Era (AD 220–80). A symbol for justice, honesty, and integrity, his
figurines are found in temples throughout China.  Image: Guandi, God of War,
derives from Guan Yu, a general of the state of Shu, portrayed in RotTK.

Dream of the red chamber: Perhaps the greatest Chinese novel, this portrays
the decline of an aristocratic Qing household. Infused with a Daoist sense of
transcendence, it focuses on the life and loves of the idle Baoyu and twelve
perceptively drawn female characters.

Image: Baoyu prefers to flirt with the women rather than obey his father and
study hard to advance his career.

20th Century

In the early 20th century, fiction writers and playwrights addressed social
issues in a new realist style. However Communism demanded revolutionary
themes. After the persecution of writers during the Cultural Revolution (see
pp50–51), experimental forms and styles gradually emerged.

However, the books of Chinese authors may still be banned if they are openly
critical of the government or are “spiritual pollutants”; nevertheless
pirated versions are often widely available.

Mo Yan is a post-Cultural Revolution fiction writer. Best known for his novel
Red Sorghum (1986), made into a major film, he writes in a rich style, often
graphic, fantastic, and violent.

Lu Xun, early 20th-century writer of short stories and novellas, is known as
the father of modern Chinese literature.  His realist, satirical style is
indebted to such writers as Dickens. He is renowned for his humorous
depiction of Ah Q, an illiterate but enthusiastic peasant, done down by the
forces of convention.

Religion and Philosophy

Traditionally, the three strands in Chinese religion and philosophy are
Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism.  An eclectic approach to religion allows
the three to coexist, often within a single temple. Confucianism, the first
to gain real influence, can be seen as a manifestation of the public,
socially responsible self. Daoism represents a personal and wilder side; its
emphasis on the relativity of things contrasts with Confucian concern for
approved roles. Buddhism, a foreign import, is spiritual and otherworldly,
offering an alternative to Chinese pragmatism. During the Cultural
Revolution, religion was outlawed as contrary to Communist ideas. Today,
people are largely able to express their beliefs.

Confucianism

Originated by Confucius (551–479 BC) and developed by later thinkers,
Confucianism advocates a structured society in which people are bound
to each other by the moral ties of the five familial relationships: parentchild,
ruler-subject, brother-brother, husband-wife, and friend-friend. In
Imperial China, Confucianism was the philosophy of the elite scholargentleman
class. For much of the Communist era, it was reviled as a
reactionary philosophy linked to the former ruling aristocracy.
Laozi, Buddha, and Confucius

Confucius was a thinker and teacher whose philosophy of family obligations
and good government is based on the principles of ren (benevolence) and yi
(righteousness). He died unknown, his disciples spreading his teachings.

Filial piety, or xiao, another Confucian precept, consists of obedience to
and reverence for one’s parents, and by extension respect for other family
members and one’s ruler.

The paying of respects to one’s ancestors is based on filial piety and runs
throughout Chinese culture. During the Qing Ming festival in April, Chinese
traditionally clean and upkeep their ancestors’ tombs.

The birth of Confucius is celebrated in the philosopher’s home town of Qufu
in late September. Many thousands of his descendants, all surnamed Kong,
still live in the city.

Scholars collated the Confucian Classics including the Lunyu (Analects), a
series of Confucius’s sayings, well after his death.  The Classics were the
basis of education until 1912.

Daoism

Strongly linked with early folk beliefs, Daoism incorporates the traditional
concepts of an ordered universe, yin and yang, and directed energy, qi. Over
time, Daoism developed into a complex religion with an extensive
pantheon. Daoist philosophy encourages following one’s intuition and
following the grain of the universe by living in accordance with the Dao.

Laozi, the founder of Daoism, is a shadowy figure, who may have lived in the
6th century BC. The Daode Jing, which introduces the idea of Dao or the Way
that permeates reality, is attributed to him.

Han Xiangzi, one of the Eight Immortals, a popular group of Daoist adepts, is
believed to have fallen from a sacred peach tree, which bestowed eternal
life. He is usually shown playing a flute.

Daoist alchemists aimed to find an elixir for eternal life, winning influence
with emperors.  Daoism influenced scientific development, and contributed to
the discovery of gunpowder in the 9th century.

In “Peach Blossom Spring” by Daoist poet Tao Qian, a fisherman chances upon a
lost idyllic world and encounters Immortals. Daoist reverence for nature led
to the creation of numerous paradises.

Buddhism

In China the Mahayana school of Buddhism, which promises salvation to anyone
who seeks it, is followed.  Enlightened ones, bodhisattvas, remain in this
world to help enlighten others. Through deeds and devotion believers gain
merit and maintain their connections with the bodhisattvas, bringing them
closer to nirvana.

The Laughing Buddha, or Milefo, is an adaptation of the Maitreya, the Future
Buddha. His large belly and laughing face are signs of abundance and he is
worshiped in the hopes of a happy, affluent life.

The Guardian King of the South (left) is coiled by a snake; the King of the
North holds a parasol. Kings of the four directions guard the entrance to
many temples protecting the main deity from evil influences.

Luohans or arhats are the Buddha’s disciples and often appear in temples in
groups of 18.  Their holiness is thought to enable them to achieve extinction
(nirvana) on death.

A Buddhist supplicant burns sticks of incense in aid of prayer.  Buddhist
temples throb with spiritual energy, as worshipers pray and make offerings to
gain merit.

Penjing (forerunner to Japanese bonsai)

Dating as far back as the Tang dynasty (618–907), penjing is the art of
creating a miniature landscape in a container. Not limited to small trees,
the artist may use rocks and specially cultivated plants to portray a scene
of natural beauty, as though it were a landscape painting. As well as being
beautiful, the harmony in these creations is seen as the spiritual expression
of man’s relationship with nature, the meeting of the temporal with the
omnipresent. Often part of a Chinese garden will be devoted to the display or
cultivation of this delicate art.

The Grand Canal

The Grand Canal, started in 486 BC, was built in sections over the next one
thousand years, with the aim of linking the Yangzi with the Yellow River, and
one capital with another. It remains the world’s largest man-made waterway.

The 1,112-mile (1,900- km) canal runs from Beijing to Hangzhou. Crossing the
traditional battlefields between north and south, the canal supplied food
throughout the empire.  The hilly terrain led to the first recorded use of
double locks in AD 984.

The earliest northern section was built for military reasons but large-scale
construction began in the 7th century under the Sui Wendi emperor, involving
over 5 million conscripted males aged between 15 and 55, supervised by a vast
and brutal police force. Linking the comparatively populous north with the
southern rice-producing region, it reached Beijing only in the 13th
century. In the early 20th century, a combination of the altered course of
the fickle Yellow River and the rise of the railways saw its gradual demise.

The Grand Canal Tourist boats are now the only way to enjoy a journey on the
canal as road and rail transport is favored by the locals.  Regular tourist
boats operate overnight services between Hangzhou and Suzhou or Wuxi, whilst
boats can also be chartered for day-trips between the major tourist stops.

The Sui Yang Di emperor is said to have celebrated the completion of his work
by touring the canal with a flotilla of dragon boats hauled by
the empire’s most beautiful women.

The canal banks are lively with people performing domestic tasks. Families,
even if they have houses, may live on board the boats when they are working.

Barges splutter their way along the canal laden with agricultural produce and
factory supplies. The busiest sections are in the south and north of the
Yangzi to the border with Shandong.

MARCO POLO: Whether Marco Polo ever visited China is much disputed. However,
according to the book he dictated to a ghost writer who embroidered it
substantially, Polo became governor of nearby Yangzhou for three years during
the Yuan dynasty. He describes Hangzhou as paradise and the finest city in
the world, with fascinating markets, pleasure boats, and prostitutes.
Hangzhou was indeed a cosmopolitan city, ever since the Southern Song dynasty
made it their capital. The Travels of Marco Polo, however, may be based on
earlier journeys by his father and uncle, and stories from other merchants.